average) did not improve the situation, and since most of the land was reclaimed from pine forest, covered with stumps, swampy, overspread with underbrush, it was even difficult to clear this land properly for cultivation. As a result, little was produced locally, and most supplies came from the wholesalers in Duluth or the Twin Cities and made the price twice that paid, for example, in the southern part of the state.

An investigation in the various municipalities of the state in 1915 revealed, for example, that flour in the mining area cost 2-4c more per pound than in southern Minnesota, fresh eggs 7-8c more per dozen, potatoes considerably more, apples twice as much, as was the case with other fruits also. Other factors in the local cost of living were the 2-4 weeks of deep sub-zero weather, requiring more outlay for heating and for heavier clothing.

It is estimated that to support a family of five a man needed a minimum of $800 per year for life to even vaguely approach the average American standard of living. Figures reveal, however, that in 1900 the average of all Minnesota wage earners was $450, or $8.50 per week, and in 1910, only $560 per year, less than $11 per week, even though this represented an increase of 24%.

However, during the same period, the price of butter had increased by 47%, flour by 57%, grain by 53% and the price of farmland by 73%. As far as miners' wages were concerned, they were somewhat above the general average, with the daily wage in 1910 being an average of $2.10, and in the course of the next five years rising to almost $3, but these higher than average sums were earned by only a few, with the army of simple diggers continuing to earn $2.25. In addition to variations between deep mines and open pits, working in dry or damp areas, etc., the piece-work system, prevalent everywhere, brought about the greatest differences, with norms arbitrarily set up by management, and some workers being favored and other suffering discrimination, with age and nationality often entering the picture.

Men were paid at the end of the month, with $7 deducted for explosives, $1 for fuses, $1 the box for caps. In coal mines elsewhere, miners used to get an itemized list of these deductions, but at the iron mines this was not the case, and as a result, men would frequently complain that their pay was less than they had expected, for what they had estimated as a net of some $4 per day could have shrunk to $3 or even much less, and with the company giving out no explanations there was cause for bitterness.

259